• Aileron are attached to the outboard trailing edge of each wing
• Ailerons are connected by cables, pulleys and bellcranks to a control wheel (yoke) or control stick
• In order to control de ailerons you need to move the yoke to the left ⬅️  or to the right ➡️

• Ailerons moves in the opposite direction from each other changing the pressure of the airflow around the airfoil

• Adverse yaw occur in a right or left roll
• As depicted, in a left turn, the upper wing increase lift and also increase drag, creating an opposite yaw from the direction of the roll
• Pilot must apply rudder pressure to counter for the adverse yaw
• Adverse yaw increase at lower airspeed because of the decrease of effectiveness of the vertical stabilizer and rudder

• Aileron that moves downward does not move as much as the aileron that moves upward
• This helps increase drag on the descending wing, compensating the drag and eliminating almost the adverse yaw

• When rudder and ailerons moves together to the same side

• The aileron that is being raised, pivot on an offset hinge. This projects the leading edge of the aileron into the airflow and creates drag.

• Is a mix between flaps and ailerons.

• Is located on the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer
• Elevator is also connected with the yoke by cables and pullys

• In order to control de elevator you need to push ⬇️  or pull ⬆️  the yoke

• In a T-tail configuration, the elevator is above most of the effects of downwash from the propeller, as well as airflow around the fuselage and/or wings during normal flight conditions
• When flying a very high AOA with a low airspeed and an aft CG, the T-tail aircraft may be more susceptible to a deep stall

• When the control column is pulled back, it raises the stabilator’s trailing edge, pulling the nose of the aircraft. Pushing the control column forward lowers the trailing edge of the stabilator and pitches the nose of the aircraft down.

• Because stabilators pivot around a central hinge point, they are extremely sensitive to control inputs and aerodynamic loads. Antiservo tabs are incorporated on the trailing edge to decrease sensitivity = no pilot overcontrol.

• The difference is that the canard actually creates lift and holds the nose up, as opposed to the aft-tail design which exerts downward force on the tail to prevent the nose from rotating downward.

• The rudder is located on the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer
• Rudder is also connected with the yoke by cables and pullys

• The V-tail design utilizes two slanted tail surfaces to perform the same functions as the surfaces of a conventional elevator and rudder configuration.
• The fixed surfaces act as both horizontal and vertical stabilizers.
• These ruddervators are connected through a special linkage that allows the control wheel to move both surfaces simultaneously. On the other hand, displacement of the rudder pedals moves the surfaces differentially, thereby providing directional control.

• Lateral
• Pitch about the lateral axis

• Longitudinal
• Roll about the longitudinal axis

• Vertical
• Yaw about the vertical axis

• Fowler flap and Slotted fowler flap change the camber and increase surface area, creating a lot of lift without producing tons of induce drag

• Single-Slot type
• Electrical Power
• Max deflection of 30°
• The circuit is protected by a 15 ampere circuit breaker

• Spoilers are deplyed from the wings to spoil the smooth airflow, reducing lift and increasing drag.
• On gliders are most often used to control rate of decent for accurate landings
• On large aircraft help slow down and reduce ground roll by transfer weight to the wheel, increasing braking efficiency
• On large aircraft are also used to control adverse yaw

Balance Tabs

• Automatically move opposite the control input, to automatically relieve some of the pressure required to be held by the pilot.

Antiservo Taps

• Works the same way as the Balance Tap but is usually located on stabilators

Ground Adjustable Taps

• Can be adjust from the ground by trial and error to stop the aircraft skidding to the left or right.

Adjustable Stabilizer

• Rather than using a movable tab on the trailing edge of the elevator, some aircraft have an adjustable stabilizer. With this arrangement, linkages pivot the horizontal stabilizer about its rear spar. This is accomplished by the use of a jackscrew mounted on the leading edge of the stabilator.

Autopilot is an automatic flight control system that keeps an aircraft in level flight or on a set course. It can be directed by the pilot, or it may be coupled to a radio navigation signal.

• The simplest systems use gyroscopic attitude indicators and magnetic compasses to control servos connected to the flight control system.
• The number and location of these servos depends on the complexity of the system. A three- axis autopilot controls the aircraft about the longitudinal, lateral, and vertical axes.

Spark Ignition

• Use sparks plugs to combust the fuel-air mixture in the cylinders.

Compression Ignition

• Create ignition by compressing the fuel-air mixture to the point where they ignite on their own under heat.

• ✅ Favorable Power-to-weight ratio (Horsepower)
• ✅ Really good with air cooling system
• ❌ Unable to maintain a small frontal area

• ❌ Low Power-to-weight ratio
• ❌ Low efficiency with air cooling
• ✅ Small frontal area

• ⭕ More Power-to-weight ratio than In-Line engine
• ✅ Good efficiency with air cooling
• ✅ Still able to maintain a relatively small frontal area

• ✅ High Power-to-weight ratio
• ✅ Good efficiency with air cooling
• ✅ Relatively small frontal area

Detonation

Is an explosion of the fuel-air mixture inside the cylinder. Explodes rather than burning smoothly. Will happen in all cylinders

It occurs after the compression-stroke near or after the top dead center

Source of Detonation

• When the fuel air mixture is subjected to very high temperature in the cylinder and spontaneously combust
• Use lower grade of fuel
• Climbing to slow (Slower than Vcc for a long period of time)
• High RPM settings with the mixture too lean

Consequence

1. Reduction in power
2. Higher force on the piston and cylinder
3. Increased noise and vibration
4. Increased temperature

Pre-Ignition

Is the ignition of the fuel-air mixture while the piston is still compressing the charge. May happen in just one cylinder

The engine works against itself, the piston compresses and the same time the hot gas expands.

Sources of Pre-Ignition

• Cracked spark plug tip
• Carbon or Lead deposits in the combustion chamber

Consequence

1. Tremendous mechanical stress on the engine
2. increasing the temperature damaging the piston
3. Engine failure

Climb Prop

• Lower pitch
• Less drag
• High RPM
• More HP capability
• Good in takeoff and climbs
• Deficient in cruising flight

Cruise Prop

• Higher pitch
• More drag
• Low RPM
• Less HP capability
• Deficient in takeoff and climbs
• Good in cruising flight

• The instrument is color coded with a green arc denoting the maximum continuous operating rpm.
• Some tachometers have additional markings to reflect engine and/or propeller limitations.
• The rpm is regulated by the throttle, which controls the fuel/air flow to the engine.

• It is the most common type of adjustable-pitch propeller.
• A constant-speed propeller is more efficient than other propellers because it allows selection of the most efficient engine rpm for the given conditions.

• Tension - Centrifugal force

Tachometer

• Controlled by the propeller control lever
• Control the RPM of the propeller

Manifold Pressure

• Controlled by the throttle
• Control the amount of fuel-air mixture is being delivered to the combustion chamber (piston)

• As altitude increases ⬆️ , air density decreases ⬇️ , fuel density remains the same
• Progressively rich mixture (more fuel than air)
• Dirty spark plug from excess carbon buildup
• Loss of power
• when there is more fuel than air, the fuel decrease the temperature in side the cylinder inhibiting complete combustion of fuel and creating a grater environment to creation of icing ❄️

• As altitude decreases ⬇️ , air density increase ⬆️ , fuel density remains the same
• Progressively lean mixture (less fuel than air)
• Detonation can occur (uncontrolled explosive ignition of the fuel-air mixture within the cylinder's combustion chamber)
• Loss of power
• Less fuel increases the temperature inside the cylinders 🥵  creating detonation
• Serious damage to the cylinders

Important info about SmarterEveryDay full video

SmarterEveryDay full video

Advantages of fuel injection

• ✅ Reduction in evaporative icing
• ✅ Better fuel flow
• ✅ Faster throttle response
• ✅ Precise control of mixture
• ✅ Better fuel distribution
• ✅ Easier cold weather starts

Disadvantages of fuel injection

• ❌ Difficulty in starting hot engines

• Wet-Sump system have the oil sump integrated with the engine at the base

• Dry-Sump system have the oil sump separate from the engine

Tricycle Fixed Gear

Tricycle Retractable Gear

Tailwheel Landing Gear

• Hydraulically actuated disc-type brake on the inboard side of each wheel
1. When the pilot steps on the brake pedal, the master cylinder provides pressure on a small tube filled with red hydraulic fluid
2. The other end of the brake line is connected to the brake cylinder
3. The increased fluid pressure pushes on the brake pad, which then provides friction
• Some aircraft use aerodynamic fairings to reduce parasite drag (form drag)

Alternator/Generator Switch

• Left

Master/Battery Switch

• Right

• Indicates the amount of current in Amps
• From the ALT to the BAT or from the BAT to the Electrical System

• A bus bar is used as a terminal in the aircraft electrical system to connect the main electrical system to the equipment using electricity as a source of power. This simplifies electrical wiring.

Cessna 152

Primary Bus

• Fuel Ind
• BCN-PITOT
• Strobe-Radio
• LDG Lts
• Flaps-IGN Switch

Avionics Bus

• Instruments Lts
• Standby Vac
• Nav Dome
• Radio 1
• Radio 2
• Rado 3-Transponder-Encoding Altimeter
• Radio 4

Fuses

• Burn off and need to be replaced

Circuit Brakers

• Can be manually reset, rather than replaced.

• Some aircrafts like C-152 have some Alternator High-Low Voltage Control Unit that controls the Over-Voltage or Low-Voltage and actuated automatically disconnecting the alternator when Over-Volt or turning on the warning light when Low-Volt.
• Low RPM will turn ON the Low-Voltage warning light.

• Principal of Operation:
• Canted Gyro
• Precession
• Indications:
• Rate of turn
• Quality of turn (Slip or Skid)
• Markings:
• Standard rate of turn marking
• Marking of coordination ball center
• Power:
• Electrical System
• Limitations:
• Only show standard rate of turn
• Errors:
• NA

image

• Principal of Operation:
• Ram pressure
• Static pressure
• Indications:
• Indicated airspeed in knots
• Markings:
• 5 knots increment
• Color coded markings
• Power:
• Pitot-static system
• Limitations:
• Max airspeed that can show
• Errors:
• Position error
• Density
• Compressibility errors

• Use Ram Pressure
• With more Ram Pressure, the Diaphragm will expand = More Airspeed, More expansion from the diaphragm
• Trough Mechanical Linkage, the appropriate Airspeed will shown in the front of the instrument

It’s the reading directly off the airspeed indicator

• Airspace speeds limits, ATC assigning airspeed are in indicated airspeed

Is the speed of your aircraft relative to the air it’s flying through

• As you climb, there is less pressure, so for any given TAS, fewer air molecules will enter the pitot tube
• At higher altitude, TAS always will be higher than IAS
• For every thousand feet above sea level, TAS is about 2% hight than IAS

Is the movement of your airplane relative to the ground

• It’s TAS corrected for wind
• With a true airspeed of 100 knots and a tailwind of 20 knots you would be flying a groundspeed of 120 knots

Withe Arc

• Flap operating range
• Approaches and landings are usually flown at speeds within the white arc

Lower limit of White Arc (Vso)

• Stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed in the landing configuration

Upper limit of the White Arc (Vfe)

• Maximum speed with the flaps extended.

Green Arc

• Normal operating range of the aircraft
• Most flying occurs within this range

Lower limit of Green Arc (Vs1)

• Stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed obtained in the clean configuration (gear up, if retractable, and flaps up).
• For most aircraft, this is the power-off stall speed at the maximum takeoff weight in clean configuration.

Upper limit of Green Arc (Vno)

• Maximum Structural Cruising Speed

Yellow Arc

• The airplane can experience very easy an structural damage

Red Line (Vne)

• Never Exceed Speed

• Principal of Operation:
• Compare static pressure with standard pressure in the aneroid (29.92)
• Indications:
• Show altitude in
• Hundred (100)
• Thousand (1,000)
• Ten thousand (10,000)
• Markings:
• 20 ft increment
• Kollsman window
• Power:
• Pitot-static system
• Static port
• Limitations:
• If is not a sensitive altimeter cannot adjust for pressure
• Errors:
• Pressure and temperature may change the indication

• Show the airplane altitude
• Aneroid Wafers are set at standard atmospheric pressure 29.92 inches Hg
• When the altitude change, the atmospheric pressure change and the aneroid wafers contracts or expand showing a increasing or decreasing in altitude
• If the airplane is climbing, the static pressure decrease via the static port, and the aneroid wafer will expand, showing an increase of altitude
• If the airplane lower the altitude, the static pressure will increase and squeeze the aneroid wafers, showing a decrease of altitude
• Because the atmospheric pressure change along the route, the pilot need to change the altimeter setting showing in the Kollsman Window with the Barometric Adjustment Knob or Altimeter Knob.
• When you move the Alt setting, you are not changing the pressure, you are just moving the entire inside mechanics of the instrument.

• 100 Foot

• 1,000 Foot

• 10,000 Foot

• Example

• Principal of Operation:
• Differential of static pressure controlled by Calibrated Leak
• Indications:
• Rate of climb and descent
• Markings:
• 20 ft increment
• Power:
• Pitot-static system
• Static port
• Limitations:
• Show max rate of climb or descent of 2000 ft per min
• Not accurate until aircraft is stabilized
• Errors:
• A delay of showing the rate of climb or descent
• Lack of accuracy
• Show false climbs or descent in turbulent flight

• Works with the principle of (Pressure In Diaphragm = Pressure outside)
• The pressure outside the diaphragm but inside the instrument is calibrated by a Calibrated Leak
• Pressure inside Diaphragm is connected direct to the Static Port, this mean the pressure inside the diaphragm change instantly
• Pressure outside Diaphragm is connected with a calibrated leak, this mean the pressure inside the instrument change smoothly
• VSI have a lack of accuracy for seconds

Blocked Pitot System

Blocked Static System

1. An engine driven vacuum pump sucks the air into the vacuum air filter
2. The filtered air go through the Attitude indicator, Heading indicator and Suction Gauge moving the gyroscopes inside of the instruments creating the Rigidity in Space
3. The filtered air exits the system via the overboard vent line

• Principal of Operation:
• Horizontal Gyro
• Works with rigidity in space
• Indications:
• Degree of Pitch and Bank
• Markings:
• Blue sky
• Horizon line
• Brown ground
• Pitch in 5º
• Bank in 10º
• Power:
• Vacuum system
• Limitations:
• Limit on the pitch angle
• Errors:
• Accelerate shows small climb
• Decelerate shows small decent
• On steep turn when rolling out shows a small bank to the opposite side

• Principal of Operation:
• Vertical Gyro
• Works with rigidity in space
• Indications:
• direction of the heading
• Markings:
• 5º increment of heading change from 0º to 355º
• Power:
• Vacuum system
• Limitations:
• Crosscheck every 15 min with magnetic compass
• exceed of 55º in pitch or bank will cause instrument to tumble
• Errors:
• Precession
• Earth rotates in space at 15º per 1 hour so,
• May indicate as much as 15º error per every hour of operation
• 3º per 15 min

Deicing equipment is designed to remove ice once it has formed

Anti-Icing equipment is designed to prevent the formation of ice.

1. Hot air ducted via the engine bleed valve from the compression stage from the engin.
2. Air runs through a pre-cooler to reduce temp to 200 C (Jet A and Jet A1 fuel Autoignition Temp: 210 C)

3. This air is distributed to the air-conditioning packs, APU and Slats.
4. Should visible ice be indicated on the visual ice indicator, the wing anti ice MUST be turn on.

5. Hot air is guided along the wing though telescopic pipes into piccolo tube.

6. Air is distributed in the slats irradiating the hot temperature and exit via some black holes at the end.

• To the engine anti-icing, the hot air is ducted via the engine anti-ice bleed valve to the leading edge of the engine

• Special care with rapid ice buildup, chunks of ice could get sucked into the engine, and can damage the fan blades.

14 CFR 91.211

Oxygen Delivery systems

Continuous flow system

deliver about 205 liters of oxygen per minute continuous (simple and cost effective)

Diluter Demand Delivery System

it activates on demand, deliver oxygen when the person inhale and mixed cabin air with the oxygen (like the oxygen mask from the airliners)

Pressure Demand System